Antarctica

§1. Antarctica Introduction

Background:
  Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until
    the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and
    British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Peninsula
    region and areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1838 was it
    established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group
    of islands. Various "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century,
    including: 1902, first balloon flight (by British explorer Robert Falcon
    SCOTT); 1912, first to the South Pole (five Norwegian explorers under
    Roald AMUNDSEN); 1928, first fixed-wing aircraft flight (by Australian
    adventurer/explorer Sir Hubert WILKINS); 1929, first flight over the
    South Pole (by Americans Richard BYRD and Bernt BALCHEN); and 1935, first
    transantarctic flight (American Lincoln ELLSWORTH). Following World War
    II, there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A
    number of countries have set up year-round research stations on
    Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but no other country
    recognizes these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the
    activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was
    negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing
    territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.

§2. Antarctica Geography

Location:
  continent mostly south of the Antarctic Circle

Geographic coordinates:
  90 00 S, 0 00 E

Map references:
  Antarctic Region

Area:
  total: 14 million kmē
  land: 14 million kmē (280,000 kmē ice-free, 13.72 million kmē ice-covered)
    (est.)
  note: fifth-largest continent, following Asia, Africa, North America, and
    South America, but larger than Australia and the subcontinent of Europe

Area - comparative:
  slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the US

Land boundaries:
  0 km note: see entry on International disputes

Coastline:
  17,968 km

Maritime claims:
  none; twenty of 27 Antarctic consultative nations have made no claims to
  Antarctic territory (although Russia and the US have reserved the right to
  do so) and do not recognize the claims of the other nations; also see the
  Disputes - international entry

Climate:
  severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from
  the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its
  higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher
  temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below
  freezing

Terrain:
  about 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average
  elevations between 2,000 and 4,000 meters; mountain ranges up to 5,140
  meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern Victoria Land,
  Wilkes Land, the Antarctic Peninsula area, and parts of Ross Island on
  McMurdo Sound; glaciers form ice shelves along about half of the coastline,
  and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent

Elevation extremes:
  lowest point: Bentley Subglacial Trench -2,540 m highest point: Vinson
    Massif 5,140 m
  note: the lowest known land point in Antarctica is hidden in the Bentley
    Subglacial Trench; at its surface is the deepest ice yet discovered and
    the world's lowest elevation not under sea water

Natural resources:
  iron ore, chromium, copper, gold, nickel, platinum and other minerals, and
  coal and hydrocarbons have been found in small uncommercial quantities;
  none presently exploited; krill, finfish, and crab have been taken by
  commercial fisheries

Land use:
  arable land: 0%
  permanent crops: 0%
  permanent pastures: 0%
  forests and woodland: 0%
  other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)

Irrigated land:
  0 kmē (1993)

Natural hazards:
  katabatic (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior;
  frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form
  over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on Deception
  Island and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare
  and weak; large icebergs may calve from ice shelf

Environment - current issues:
  in 1998, NASA satellite data showed that the antarctic ozone hole was the
  largest on record, covering 27 million square kilometers; researchers in
  1997 found that increased ultraviolet light coming through the hole damages
  the DNA of icefish, an antarctic fish lacking hemoglobin; ozone depletion
  earlier was shown to harm one-celled antarctic marine plants

Geography - note:
  the coldest, windiest, highest (on average), and driest continent; during
  summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the South Pole than is
  received at the Equator in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable

§3. Antarctica People

Population:
  no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research
  stations
  note: approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the Antarctic Treaty, send
    personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round research on the
    continent and in its surrounding oceans; the population of persons doing
    and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands south of
    60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty)
    varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in
    addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including ship's crew and
    scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty
    region; Summer (January) population - 3,687 total; Argentina 302,
    Australia 201, Belgium 13, Brazil 80, Bulgaria 16, Chile 352, China 70,
    Finland 11, France 100, Germany 51, India 60, Italy 106, Japan 136, South
    Korea 14, Netherlands 10, NZ 60, Norway 40, Peru 28, Poland 70, Russia
    254, South Africa 80, Spain 43, Sweden 20, UK 192, US 1,378 (1998-99);
    Winter (July) population - 964 total; Argentina 165, Australia 75, Brazil
    12, Chile 129, China 33, France 33, Germany 9, India 25, Japan 40, South
    Korea 14, NZ 10, Poland 20, Russia 102, South Africa 10, UK 39, US 248
    (1998-99); year-round stations - 42 total; Argentina 6, Australia 4,
    Brazil 1, Chile 4, China 2, Finland 1, France 1, Germany 1, India 1,
    Italy 1, Japan 1, South Korea 1, NZ 1, Norway 1, Poland 1, Russia 6,
    South Africa 1, Spain 1, Ukraine 1, UK 2, US 3, Uruguay 1 (1998-99);
    Summer-only stations - 32 total; Argentina 3, Australia 4, Bulgaria 1,
    Chile 7, Germany 1, India 1, Japan 3, NZ 1, Peru 1, Russia 3, Sweden 2,
    UK 5 (1998-99); in addition, during the austral summer some nations have
    numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary
    facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (July 2001 est.)

§4. Antarctica Government

Country name:
  conventional long form: none
  conventional short form: Antarctica

Government type:
  Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959
    and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework
    for the management of Antarctica. The 23rd Antarctic Treaty Consultative
    Meeting was held in Peru in May 1999. At the end of 2000, there were 44
    treaty member nations: 27 consultative and 17 non-consultative.
    Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim
    portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 20
    nonclaimant nations. The US and Russia have reserved the right to make
    claims. The US does not recognize the claims of others. Antarctica is
    administered through meetings of the consultative member nations.
    Decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations
    (within their areas) in accordance with their own national laws. The year
    in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was voted to full
    consultative (voting) status, while no date indicates the country was an
    original 1959 treaty signatory. Claimant nations are - Argentina,
    Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant
    consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China
    (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983),
    Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989),
    Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Uruguay
    (1985), and the US. Non-consultative (nonvoting) members, with year of
    accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada (1988), Colombia
    (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Greece
    (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New
    Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990),
    Turkey (1995), Ukraine (1992), and Venezuela (1999). Article 1 - area to
    be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons
    testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used
    for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; Article 2 -
    freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;
    Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with
    the UN and other international agencies; Article 4 - does not recognize,
    dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be
    asserted while the treaty is in force; Article 5 - prohibits nuclear
    explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; Article 6 - includes under
    the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south
    and reserves high seas rights; Article 7 - treaty-state observers have
    free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect
    all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all
    expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;
    Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by
    their own states; Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place
    among member nations; Article 10 - treaty states will discourage
    activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;
    Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned
    or, ultimately, by the ICJ; Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding,
    interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations. Other
    agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative
    meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna
    and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental
    Protocol; Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972);
    Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
    (1980); a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains
    unratified; the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic
    Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998;
    this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment
    through five specific annexes: 1) marine pollution, 2) fauna and flora,
    3) environmental impact assessments, 4) waste management, and 5)
    protected area management; it prohibits all activities relating to
    mineral resources except scientific research.

Legal system:
  Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member
    nations. Decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member
    nations (within their areas) in accordance with their own national laws.
    US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals,
    such as murder, may apply extra-territorially. Some US laws directly
    apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16
    U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for
    the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of statute: the
    taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous
    plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge
    or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain
    items from Antarctica. Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act
    carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The
    National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement
    responsibilities. Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of
    1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica
    to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 5801,
    Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to
    other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty. For more information,
    contact Permit Office, Office of Polar Programs, National Science
    Foundation, Arlington, Virginia 22230; telephone: (703) 292-8030, or see
    their website at www.nsf.gov.

§5. Antarctica Economy

Economy - overview:
  Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for the
  limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 1998-99 (1 July-30 June)
  reported landing 119,898 metric tons. Unregulated fishing landed five to
  six times more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in
  antarctic waters in 1998 resulted in the seizure (by France and Australia)
  of at least eight fishing ships. Companies interested in commercial fishing
  activities in Antarctica have put forward proposals. The Convention on the
  Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines the
  recommended catch limits for marine species. A total of 13,193 tourists
  visited in the 1999-2000 summer, up from the 10,013 who visited the
  previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 24 commercial
  (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that made 143 trips during the
  summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks.

§6. Antarctica Communications

Telephones - main lines in use:
  0 note: information for US bases only (2001)

Telephones - mobile cellular:
  NA

Telephone system:
  general assessment: NA domestic: NA
  international: NA

Radio broadcast stations:
  AM NA, FM 2, shortwave 1 note: information for US bases only (1998)

Radios:
  NA

Television broadcast stations:
  1 (the US Navy Antarctic Support Group operates a cable system with six
  channels for the American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
  note: information for US bases only (2000)

Televisions:
  several hundred at McMurdo Sound
  note: information for US bases only (2001)

Internet country code:
  .aq

Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
  NA

§7. Antarctica Transportation

Ports and harbors:
  there are no developed ports and harbors in Antarctica; most coastal
  stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship
  to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters; a few stations have a
  basic wharf facility US coastal stations include McMurdo (77 51 S, 166 40
  E), Palmer (64 43 S, 64 03 W); government use only except by permit (see
  Permit Office under "Legal System"); offshore anchorage is sparse and
  intermittent

Airports:
  19
  note: 27 stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the
    Antarctic Treaty, have aircraft landing facilities for either helicopters
    and/or fixed-wing aircraft; commercial enterprises operate two additional
    aircraft landing facilities; helicopter pads are available at 27
    stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or
    compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of
    these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in
    length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in
    length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use
    by ski-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15
    locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2
    km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less
    than 1 km in length, and 4 are of unknown length; aircraft landing
    facilities generally subject to severe restrictions and limitations
    resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; aircraft
    landing facilities do not meet ICAO standards; advance approval from the
    respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization
    required for landing (2001 est.)

Airports - with unpaved runways:
  total: 19 over 3,047 m: 6
  2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
  1,524 to 2,437 m: 1
  914 to 1,523 m: 4
  under 914 m: 5 (2000 est.)

Heliports:
  27 stations have helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2001 est.)

§8. Antarctica Military

Military - note:
  the Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature, such as
  the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of
  military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon; it permits the
  use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any
  other peaceful purposes

§9. Antarctica Transnational Issues

Disputes - international:
  Antarctic Treaty freezes claims (see Antarctic Treaty Summary in Government
  type entry); sections (some overlapping) claimed by Argentina, Australia,
  Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and UK; the US and most other nations
  do not recognize the territorial claims of other nations and have made no
  claims themselves (the US and Russia reserve the right to do so); no claims
  have been made in the sector between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west
